Spatial information on land and soil resources are critical towards addressing land degradation for ensuring sustainable soil and crop management. To address these needs, digital soil mapping techniques have emerged as an efficient and low-cost solution. Although digital soil mapping has typically leveraged geospatial environmental variables (e.g. remote sensing), the application and integration of spectroscopic data with those environmental variables remain limited. Hence, this study combines visible and near infrared (Vis-NIR) spectroscopy, remote sensing, and topographic data and applies random forests, hybridized with particle swarm optimization algorithm (RF þ PSO), to predict the spatial variability of soil clay content, electrical conductivity (EC), and calcium carbonate equivalent (CCE) for 370 km2 of agricultural land in western Iran. Using a conditioned Latin hypercube approach, 220 soil samples at the 0–20 cm depth increment were acquired throughout the study area. Three sets of environmental covariates were tested: Scenario A (Vis-NIR spectroscopy data), Scenario B (environmental data), and Scenario C (Vis-NIR spectroscopy þ environmental data). According to the 10-fold cross validation procedure with 100 replications, the RFþ PSO model showed an acceptable level accuracy for all scenarios, although the accuracy of the RFþ PSO model using the Scenario C data was higher than all other scenarios: the Lin’s Concordance Correlation Coefficient values were 0.77, 0.83, and 0.74 for the clay contents, EC, and CCE, respectively. The results demonstrated that the combination of Vis-NIR spectroscopic data and commonly available environmental covariates provided the best input data for the hybridized model and enhanced its performance.
